Historical approaches
The first psychological research conducted on prejudice occurred in the 1920s. This research attempted to prove white supremacy. One article from 1925 reviewing 73 studies on race concluded that the studies seemed “to indicate the mental superiority of the white race”.[5] These studies, along with other research, led many psychologists to view prejudice as a natural response to inferior races.In the 1930s and 1940s, this perspective began to change due to the increasing concern about anti-Semitism. At the time, theorists viewed prejudice as pathological and thus looked for personality syndromes linked with racism. Theodor Adorno believed prejudice stemmed from an authoritarian personality. Adorno described authoritarians as “rigid thinkers who obeyed authority, saw the world as black and white, and enforced strict adherence to social rules and hierarchies”.[6] Adorno believed people with authoritarian personalities were the most likely to be prejudiced against groups of lower status.
In 1954, Gordon Allport linked prejudice to categorical thinking. Allport claimed that prejudice is a natural and normal process for humans. According to him, "The human mind must think with the aid of categories… Once formed, categories are the basis for normal prejudgment. We cannot possibly avoid this process. Orderly living depends upon it."[7]
In the 1970s, research began to show that prejudice tends to be based on favoritism towards one’s own groups, rather than negative feelings towards another group. According to Marilyn Brewer, prejudice "may develop not because outgroups are hated, but because positive emotions such as admiration, sympathy, and trust are reserved for the ingroup."[8]
In 1979, Thomas Pettigrew described the ultimate attribution error and its role in prejudice. The ultimate attribution error occurs when ingroup members "(1) attribute negative outgroup behavior to dispositional causes (more than they would for identical ingroup behavior), and (2) attribute positive outgroup behavior to one or more of the following causes: (a) a fluke or exceptional case, (b) luck or special advantage, (c) high motivation and effort, and (d) situational factors."[6]
Contemporary theories and empirical findings
Social psychologist Henri Tajfel and colleagues found that ingroup favoritism can occur even in groups with no prior social meaning. In the minimal group experiments, participants were assigned into groups based on something trivial, such as a coin toss. These participants would then exhibit in-group favouritism, giving preferential treatment to in-group members.[9]The out-group homogeneity effect is the perception that members of an out-group are more similar (homogenous) than members of the in-group. Social psychologists Quattrone and Jones conducted a study demonstrating this with students from the rival schools Princeton and Rutgers.[10] Students at each school were shown videos of other students from each school choosing a type of music to listen to for an auditory perception study. Then the participants were asked to guess what percentage of the videotaped students’ classmates would choose the same. Participants predicted a much greater similarity between out-group members (the rival school) than between members of their in-group.
The justification-suppression model of prejudice was created by Christian Crandall and Amy Eshleman.[11] This model explains that people face a conflict between the desire to express prejudice and the desire to maintain a positive self-concept. This conflict causes people to search for justification for disliking an out-group, and to use that justification to avoid negative feelings (cognitive dissonance) about themselves when they act on their dislike of the out-group.
The realistic conflict theory states that competition between limited resources leads to increased negative prejudices and discrimination. This can be seen even when the resource is insignificant. In the Robber’s Cave experiment,[12] negative prejudice and hostility was created between two summer camps after sports competitions for small prizes. The hostility was lessened after the two competing camps were forced to cooperate on tasks to achieve a common goal.
Another contemporary theory is Integrated Threat Theory (ITT) developed by Walter G Stephan.[13] It draws from and builds upon several other psychological explanations of prejudice and ingroup/outgroup behaviour, such as Realistic Group Conflict Threat and symbolic racism.[14] It also uses the Social Identity Theory perspective as the basis for its validity, that is, it assumes that individuals operate in a group-based context where group memberships form a part of individual identity. ITT posits that outgroup prejudice and discrimination is caused when individuals perceive an outgroup to be threatening in some way. ITT defines four threats:
- Realistic threats
- Symbolic threats
- Intergroup anxiety
- Negative stereotypes
Additionally, Social Dominance Theory states that society can be viewed as group-based hierarchies. In competition for scarce resources such as housing or employment, dominant groups create prejudiced "legitimizing myths" to provide moral and intellectual justification for their dominant position over other groups and validate their claim over the limited resources.[15] Legitimizing myths, such as discriminatory hiring practices or biased merit norms, work to maintain these prejudiced hierarchies.
Prejudice can be a central contributing factor to depression.[16] This can occur in someone who is a prejudice victim, being the target of someone's else's prejudice, or when people have prejudice against themselves that causes their own depression.
Controversies and prominent topics
One can be prejudiced against, or have a preconceived notion about someone due to any characteristic they find to be unusual or undesirable. A few commonplace examples of prejudice are those based on someone’s race, gender, nationality, social status, sexual orientation or religious affiliation, and controversies may arise from any given topic.Sexism
Main article: Sexism
The term sexism is generally linked to negative sentiments with
regard to females that derive from the belief that females are worth
less or less capable than males.[17]
The discussion of such sentiments, and actual gender differences and
stereotypes continue to be controversial topics. Throughout history,
women have been thought of as being subordinate to men, often being
ignored in areas like the academic arena or belittled altogether.
Traditionally, men were thought of as being more capable than women,
mentally and physically.[17]
In the field of Social Psychology, prejudice studies like the “Who
Likes Competent Women” study led the way for gender-based research on
prejudice [17] This resulted in two broad themes or focuses in the field: the first being a focus on attitudes toward gender equality, and the second focusing on people’s beliefs about men and women [17]
Today studies based on sexism continue in the field of psychology as
researchers try to understand how people’s thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors influence and are influenced by others.Nationalism
Main article: Nationalism
Nationalism is a sentiment based on common cultural characteristics
that binds a population and often produces a policy of national
independence or separatism.[18]
It suggests a “shared identity” amongst a nation's people that
minimizes differences within the group and emphasizes perceived
boundaries between the group and non-members.[19]
This leads to the assumption that members of the nation have more in
common than they actually do, that they are “culturally unified,” even
if injustices within the nation based on differences like status and
race exist.[19]
Nationalism, during times of conflict between one nation and another,
is controversial since it may function as a buffer for criticism when it
comes to the nation’s own problems since it makes the nation’s own
hierarchies and internal conflicts appear to be natural.[19] It may also serve a way of rallying the people of the nation in support of a particular political goal.[19]
Nationalism usually involves a push for conformity, obedience, and
solidarity amongst the nation’s people and can result, not only in
feelings of public responsibility, but also a narrow sense of community
due to the exclusion of those who are considered outsiders.[19]
Since the identity of nationalists is linked to their allegiance to the
state, the presence of strangers who do not share this allegiance may
result in hostility.[19]Classism
Main article: Classism
Classism is defined by the World English Dictionary as, “...a biased
or discriminatory attitude on distinctions made between social or
economic classes.”[20] The idea of separating people based on class is controversial in itself. Some argue that economic inequality is an unavoidable aspect of society, so there will always be a ruling class.[21]
Some also argue that even within the most egalitarian societies in
history, some form of ranking based on social status takes place.
Therefore, one may believe the existence of social classes is a natural
feature of society.[22]
Others argue the contrary. According to anthropological evidence, for
the majority of the time the human species has been in existence, we
have lived in a manner in which the land and resources were not
privately owned.[22] Also, when social ranking did occur, it was not antagonistic or hostile like the current class system.[22]
This evidence has been used to support the idea that the existence of a
social class system is unnecessary. Overall, society has yet to come to
a consensus over the necessity of the class system, nor has society
been able to deal with the hostility and prejudice that occurs because
of the class system.Sexual discrimination
Main article: Homophobia
One’s sexual orientation is a “predilection for homosexuality, heterosexuality, or bisexuality”.[23]
Like most minority groups, homosexuals and bisexuals are not immune to
prejudice or stereotypes from the majority group. They may experience
hatred from others because of their sexual preferences; a term for such
intense hatred based upon one’s sexual orientation is homophobia.
Due to what social psychologists call the vividness effect, a tendency
to notice only certain distinctive characteristics, the majority
population tends to draw conclusions like gays flaunt their sexuality.[24] Such images may be easily recalled to mind due to their vividness, making it harder appraise the entire situation.[24]
The majority population may not only think that homosexuals flaunt
their sexuality or are “too gay,” but may also erroneously believe that
homosexuals are easy to identify and label as being gay or lesbian when
compared to others who are not homosexual.[25]
The idea of heterosexual privilege seems to flourish in society.
Research and questionnaires are formulated to fit the
majority—heterosexuals. This discussion of whether heterosexuals are the
privileged group and whether homosexuals are a minimized group is
controversial. Research shows that discrimination on the basis of sexual
orientation is a powerful feature of many labor markets. For example,
controlling for human capital, studies show that gay men earn 10% - 32%
less than heterosexual men in the United States, and that there is
significant discrimination in hiring on the basis of sexual orientation
in many labor markets.[26]Racism
Main article: Racism
Racism is defined as the belief that races exist, that physical
characteristics determine cultural traits, and that racial
characteristics make some groups superior.[27]
By separating people into hierarchies based upon their race, it has
been argued that unequal treatment among the different groups of people
is just and fair due to their genetic differences.[27]
Racism can occur amongst any group that can be identified based upon
physical features or even characteristics of their culture.[27]
Though people may be lumped together and called a specific race,
everyone does not fit neatly into such categories, making it hard to
define and describe a race accurately.[27]Scientific racism began to flourish in the eighteenth century and was greatly influenced by Charles Darwin’s evolutionary studies, as well as ideas taken from the writings of philosophers like Aristotle; for example, Aristotle believed in the concept of “natural slaves”.[27] This concept focuses on the necessity of hierarchies and how some people are bound to be on the bottom of the pyramid. Though racism has been a prominent topic in history, there is still debate over whether race actually exists[citation needed], making the discussion of race a controversial topic. Even though the concept of race is still being debated, the effects of racism are apparent. Racism and other forms of prejudice can affect a person’s behavior, thoughts and feelings, and social psychologists strive to study exactly that.
Religious discrimination
Main article: Religious discrimination
While various religions teach their members to be tolerant of those
who are different and to have compassion, throughout history there have
also been instances where religion has been used to promote hate.[28]
Researchers have done various studies explore the relationship between
religion and prejudice; thus far, they have received mixed results. A
study done with US college students found that those who reported
religion to be very influential in their lives seem to have a higher
rate of prejudice than those who reported not being religious.[29] Other studies found that religion has a positive affect on people as far as prejudice is concerned.[29]
This difference in results may be attributed to the differences in
religious practices or religious interpretations amongst the
individuals. Those who practice “institutionalized religion,” which
focuses more on social and political aspects of religious events, are
more likely to have an increase in prejudice.[30]
Those who practice “interiorized religion,” in which believers devote
themselves to their beliefs, are most likely to have a decrease in
prejudice.[30]Linguistic discrimination
Main article: Linguistic discrimination
Individuals or groups may be treated unfairly based solely on their
use of language. This use of language may include the individual's
native language or other characteristics of the person's speech, such as
an accent, the size of vocabulary (whether the person uses complex and
varied words), and syntax. It may also involve a person's ability or
inability to use one language instead of another. In the mid-1980s, Linguist
Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, captured this idea of discrimination based on
language as the concept of linguicism. Kangas defined linguicism as the
ideologies and structures used to, "...legitimate, effectuate, and
reproduce unequal division of power and resources (both material and
non-material) between groups which are defined on the basis of
language."[31]Multiculturalism
Main article: Multiculturalism
Humans have an evolved propensity to think categorically about social
groups, manifested in cognitive processes with broad implications for
public and political endorsement of multicultural policy, according to
psychologists Richard J. Crisp and Rose Meleady.[32]
They postulated a cognitive-evolutionary account of human adaptation to
social diversity that explains general resistance to multiculturalism,
and offer a reorienting call for scholars and policy-makers who seek
intervention-based solutions to the problem of prejudice.Reducing prejudice
The contact hypothesis
The contact hypothesis predicts that prejudice can only be reduced when in-group and out-group members are brought together.[33] In particular, there are six conditions that must be met to reduce prejudice, as were cultivated in Elliot Aronson's Jigsaw Classroom.[33] First, the in- and out- groups must have a degree of mutual interdependence. Second, both groups need to share a common goal. Third, the two groups must have equal status. Fourth, there must be frequent opportunities for informal and interpersonal contact between groups. Fifth, there should be multiple contacts between the in- and the out- groups. Finally, social norms of equality must exist and be present to foster prejudice reduction.Empirical research
Academics Thomas Pettigrew and Linda Tropp conducted a meta-analysis of 515 studies involving a quarter of a million participants in 38 nations to examine how intergroup contact reduces prejudice. They found that three mediators are of particular importance: Intergroup contact reduces prejudice by (1) enhancing knowledge about the outgroup, (2) reducing anxiety about intergroup contact, and (3) increasing empathy and perspective taking. While all three of these mediators had mediational effects, the mediational value of increased knowledge was less strong than anxiety reduction and empathy.[34] In addition, some individuals confront discrimination when they see it happen, with research finding that individuals are more likely to confront when they perceive benefits to themselves, and are less likely to confront when concerned about others' reactions.[35]See also
- Ambivalent prejudice
- Benevolent prejudice
- Common ingroup identity
- Symbolic prejudice
- Hostile prejudice
- Idée fixe (psychology)
- In-group–out-group bias
- Multiculturalism
- Stigma management
- Suspension of judgment
References
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- William James wrote, "A great many people think they are thinking when they are merely rearranging their prejudices."Quotable Quotes – Courtesy of The Freeman Institute
- Rosnow, Ralph L. (March 1972). "Poultry and Prejudice". Psychologist Today 5 (10): 53–6.
- Allport, Gordon (1979). The Nature of Prejudice. Perseus Books Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 0-201-00179-9.
- Garth, T. Rooster. (1930). "A review of race psychology". Psychological Bulletin 27 (5): 329–56. doi:10.1037/h0075064.
- Plous, S. "The Psychology of Prejudice." Understanding Prejudice.org. Web. 07 Apr. 2011.[verification needed]
- Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.[page needed]
- Brewer, Marilynn B. (1999). "The Psychology of Prejudice: Ingroup Love and Outgroup Hate?". Journal of Social Issues 55 (3): 429–44. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00126.
- Tajfel, H. (1982). Social identity and intergroup relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.[page needed]
- Quattrone, George A.; Jones, Edward E. (1980). "The perception of variability within in-groups and out-groups: Implications for the law of small numbers". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38: 141–52. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.38.1.141.
- Crandall, Christian S.; Eshleman, Amy (2003). "A justification-suppression model of the expression and experience of prejudice". Psychological Bulletin 129 (3): 414–46. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.414. PMID 12784937.
- Sherif, Muzafer; Harvey, O. J.; White, B. Jack; Hood, William R.; Sherif, Carolyn W. (1988). The Robbers Cave Experiment: Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-6194-7.[page needed]
- Stephan, Cookie White; Stephan, Walter C.; Demitrakis, Katherine M.; Yamada, Ann Marie; Clason, Dennis L. (2000). "Women's Attitudes Toward Men: an Integrated Threat Theory Approach". Psychology of Women Quarterly 24: 63–73. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb01022.x.
- Riek, Blake M.; Mania, Eric W.; Gaertner, Samuel L. (2006). "Intergroup Threat and Outgroup Attitudes: A Meta-Analytic Review". Personality and Social Psychology Review 10 (4): 336–53. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_4. PMID 17201592.
- Sidanius, Jim; Pratto, Felicia; Bobo, Lawrence (1996). "Racism, conservatism, Affirmative Action, and intellectual sophistication: A matter of principled conservatism or group dominance?". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70 (3): 476–90. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.476.
- Cox, William T. L.; Abramson, Lyn Y.; Devine, Patricia G.; Hollon, Steven D. (2012). "Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective". Perspectives on Psychological Science 7 (5): 427–49. doi:10.1177/1745691612455204.
- Dovidio, John, Peter Glick, and Laurie Rudman. On the Nature of Prejudice. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. 108. Print.
- World English Dictionary
- Blackwell, Judith; Smith, Murray; Sorenson, John (2003). Culture of Prejudice: Arguments in Critical Social Science. Toronto: Broadview Press. pp. 31–2.
- World English Dictionary, [1] "Classism"]
- Blackwell, Judith, Murray Smith, and John Sorenson. Culture of Prejudice: Arguments in Critical Social Science. Toronto: Broadview Press, 2003. 145. Print.
- Blackwell, Judith, Murray Smith, and John Sorenson. Culture of Prejudice: Arguments in Critical Social Science. Toronto: Broadview Press, 2003. 146. Print.
- World English Dictionary, [2] "Sexual Orientation]
- Anderson, Kristin. "Benign Bigotry: The Psychology of Subtle Prejudice." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 198. Print.
- Anderson, Kristin. "Benign Bigotry: The Psychology of Subtle Prejudice." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 200. Print.
- Tilcsik, A. (2011). "Pride and Prejudice: Employment Discrimination against Openly Gay Men in the United States." American Journal of Sociology, 117(2), 586-626. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22268247
- Blackwell, Judith, Murray Smith, and John Sorenson. Culture of Prejudice: Arguments in Critical Social Science. Toronto: Broadview Press, 2003. 37-38. Print.
- On the Nature of Prejudice. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. 413. Print.
- Dovidio, John, Peter Glick, and Laurie Rudman. On the Nature of Prejudice. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. 413. Print.
- Dovidio, John, Peter Glick, and Laurie Rudman. On the Nature of Prejudice. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. 414. Print.
- Quoted in Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove, and Phillipson, Robert, "'Mother Tongue': The Theoretical and Sociopolitical Construction of a Concept." In Ammon, Ulrich (ed.) (1989). Status and Function of Languages and Language Varieties, p. 455. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter & Co. ISBN 3-11-011299-X.
- Crisp, Richard J.; Meleady, Rose (2012). "Adapting to a Multicultural Future". Science 336 (6083): 853–5. doi:10.1126/science.1219009. PMID 22605761.
- Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2010). Social Psychology (7th edition). New York: Pearson.
- Pettigrew, Thomas F.; Tropp, Linda R. (2008). "How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Meta-analytic tests of three mediators". European Journal of Social Psychology 38 (6): 922–934. doi:10.1002/ejsp.504.
- Good, J. J.; Moss-Racusin, C. A.; Sanchez, D. T. (2012). "When do we confront? Perceptions of costs and benefits predict confronting discrimination on behalf of the self and others". Psychology of Women Quarterly 36: 210–226. doi:10.1177/0361684312440958.
Further reading
- Adorno, Th. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D. J. and Sanford, R. N. (1950). The authoritarian personality. New York: Harper.
- Dorschel, A., Rethinking prejudice. Aldershot, Hampshire – Burlington, Vermont – Singapore – Sydney: Ashgate, 2000 (New Critical Thinking in Philosophy, ed. Ernest Sosa, Alan H. Goldman, Alan Musgrave et alii)
- MacRae, C. Neil; Bodenhausen, Galen V. (2001). "Social cognition: Categorical person perception". British Journal of Psychology 92: 239–55. doi:10.1348/000712601162059.
- Sherman, Jeffrey W.; Lee, Angela Y.; Bessenoff, Gayle R.; Frost, Leigh A. (1998). "Stereotype efficiency reconsidered: Encoding flexibility under cognitive load". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75 (3): 589–606. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.3.589. PMID 9781404.
- Kinder, Donald R.; Sanders, Lynn M. (1997). "Subtle Prejudice for Modern Times". Divided by Color: Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals. American Politics and Political Economy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 92–160. ISBN 978-0-226-43574-9.